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Peru

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For other uses, see Peru (disambiguation).

Republic of Peru ·         República del Perú  (Spanish) ·         Piruw Ripuwlika  (Quechua) ·         Piruw Suyu  (Aymara)
Flag Coat of arms
Anthem: Himno Nacional del Perú  (Spanish) National Anthem of Peru MENU 0:00
National seal: Gran Sello del Estado  (Spanish) Great Seal of the State
Capital and largest city		Lima 12°2.6′S 77°1.7′W
Official languagesa		Spanish Co-official languages:Quechua, Aymara
Ethnic groups(2013[1])		·         45% Amerindian ·         37% Mestizo ·         15% White ·         2% others[1]
Demonym		Peruvian
Government		Unitary presidentialconstitutional republic
-	President	Ollanta Humala
-	Prime Minister	César Villanueva
-	Vice President	Marisol Espinoza
Legislature		Congress
Independence from Spain
-	Declared	July 28, 1821
-	Consolidated	December 9, 1824
-	Recognized	May 2, 1866
-	Current Constitution	December 31, 1993
Area
-	Total	1,285,216 km2 (20th) 496,225 sq mi
-	Water (%)	0.41
Population
-	2013 estimate	30,475,144 (40th)
-	2007 census	28,220,764
-	Density	23/km2 (191st) 57/sq mi
GDP (PPP)		2014 estimate
-	Total	$370.735 billion[2]
-	Per capita	$11,797[2]
GDP (nominal)		2014 estimate
-	Total	$220.564 billion[2]
-	Per capita	$7,019[2]
Gini (2010)		48.1[3] high · 35th
HDI (2013)		0.741[4] high · 77th
Currency		Nuevo sol (PEN)
Time zone		PET (UTC−5)
Date format		dd.mm.yyyy (CE)
Drives on the		right
Calling code		+51
ISO 3166 code		PE
Internet TLD		.pe
a.	Quechua, Aymara and other indigenous languages are co-official in the areas where they predominate.

Peru ⁱ/pəˈruː/ (Spanish: Perú; Quechua: Perú or Piruw;^[5] Aymara: Piruw), officially the Republic of Peru (Spanish: República del Perú,pronounced: [reˈpuβlika ðel peˈɾu] ( listen)), is a country in western South America. It is bordered in the north by Ecuador and Colombia, in the east by Brazil, in the southeast by Bolivia, in the south by Chile, and in the west by the Pacific Ocean.

Peruvian territory was home to ancient cultures spanning from the Norte Chico civilization, one of the oldest in the world, to the Inca Empire, the largest state in Pre-Columbian America. The Spanish Empire conquered the region in the 16th century and established a Viceroyalty with its capital in Lima, which included most of its South American colonies. After achieving independence in 1821, Peru has undergone periods of political unrest and fiscal crisis as well as periods of stability and economic upswing. Economic cycles have mostly been based on the extraction of raw materials like guano (1840s-1860s) and rubber (ca. 1900).

Peru is a representative democratic republic divided into 25 regions. Its geography varies from the arid plains of the Pacific coast to the peaks of the Andes Mountains and the tropical forests of the Amazon Basin. It is a developing country with a high Human Development Index score and a poverty level around 25.8 percent.^[6] Its main economic activities include mining, manufacturing, agriculture and fishing.

The Peruvian population, estimated at 30.4 million, is multiethnic, including Amerindians, Europeans, Africans and Asians. The main spoken language is Spanish, although a significant number of Peruvians speak Quechua or other native languages. This mixture of cultural traditions has resulted in a wide diversity of expressions in fields such as art, cuisine, literature, and music.

Contents

The word Peru has origins in various Southern French and North Western Spain languages (Occitan) and also found in the Corsican country, however to the Europeans the word Peru was the most suited to replace the original name Birú, the name of a local ruler who lived near the Bay of San Miguel, Panama, in the early 16th century.^[7] When his possessions were visited by Spanish explorers in 1522, they were the southernmost part of the New World yet known to Europeans.^[8] Thus, when Francisco Pizarro explored the regions farther south, they came to be designated Birú or Peru.^[9]

The Spanish Crown gave the name legal status with the 1529 Capitulación de Toledo, which designated the newly encountered Inca Empire as the province of Peru.^[10] Under Spanish rule, the country adopted the denomination Viceroyalty of Peru, which became the Republic of Peru after thePeruvian War of Independence.

History[edit]

Main article: History of Peru

The earliest evidences of human presence in Peruvian territory have been dated to approximately 9,000 years BCE.^[11] The oldest known complex society in Peru, the Norte Chico civilization, flourished along the coast of the Pacific Ocean between 3,000 and 1,800 BCE.^[12] These early developments were followed by archaeological cultures such as Cupisnique, Chavin, Paracas, Mochica, Nazca, Wari, and Chimú. In the 15th century, the Incas emerged as a powerful state which, in the span of a century, formed the largest empire in pre-Columbian America.^[13] Andean societies were based on agriculture, using techniques such as irrigation and terracing; camelid husbandry and fishing were also important. Organization relied on reciprocity and redistribution because these societies had no notion of market or money.^[14]

In December 1532, a party of conquistadors led by Francisco Pizarro defeated and captured Inca Emperor Atahualpa. Ten years later, the Spanish Crown established the Viceroyalty of Peru, which included most of its South American colonies.^[15] Viceroy Francisco de Toledo reorganized the country in the 1570s, with silver mining as its main economic activity and Amerindian forced labor as its primary workforce.^[16]

Peruvian bullion provided revenue for the Spanish Crown and fueled a complex trade network that extended as far as Europe and the Philippines.^[17]However, by the 18th century, declining silver production and economic diversification greatly diminished royal income.^[18] In response, the Crown enacted the Bourbon Reforms, a series of edicts that increased taxes and partitioned the Viceroyalty.^[19] The new laws provoked Túpac Amaru II's rebellion and other revolts, all of which were quashed.^[20]

Since its independence in 1821, Peru's bustling center of commerce and political power has remained at Lima.

In the early 19th century, while most of South America was swept by wars of independence, Peru remained a royalist stronghold. As the elite vacillated between emancipation and loyalty to the Spanish Monarchy, independence was achieved only after the occupation by military campaigns of José de San Martín and Simón Bolívar.^[21] During the early years of the Republic, endemic struggles for power between military leaders caused political instability.^[22]

Peruvian national identity was forged during this period, as Bolivarian projects for a Latin American Confederation floundered and a union with Bolivia proved ephemeral.^[23] Between the 1840s and 1860s, Peru enjoyed a period of stability under the presidency of Ramón Castilla through increased state revenues from guano exports.^[24] However, by the 1870s, these resources had been depleted, the country was heavily indebted, and political in-fighting was again on the rise.^[25]

Peru was defeated by Chile in the 1879–1883 War of the Pacific, ceding the provinces of Arica andTarapacá in the treaties of Ancón and Lima. Internal struggles after the war were followed by a period of stability under the Civilista Party, which lasted until the onset of the authoritarian regime of Augusto B. Leguía.^[26] The Great Depression caused the downfall of Leguía, renewed political turmoil, and the emergence of the American Popular Revolutionary Alliance (APRA).^[27] The rivalry between this organization and a coalition of the elite and the military defined Peruvian politics for the following three decades.^[28]

In 1968, the Armed Forces, led by General Juan Velasco Alvarado, staged a coup against president Fernando Belaunde. The new regime undertook radical reforms aimed at fostering development, but failed to gain widespread support.^[29] In 1975, General Francisco Morales Bermúdezforcefully replaced Velasco, paralyzed reforms, and oversaw the reestablishment of democracy.^[30] During the 1980s, Peru faced a considerable external debt, ever-growing inflation, a surge in drug trafficking, and massive political violence.^[31] Under the presidency of Alberto Fujimori (1990–2000), the country started to recover; however, accusations of authoritarianism, corruption, and human rights violations forced his resignation after the controversial 2000 elections.^[32] Since the end of the Fujimori regime, Peru has tried to fight corruption while sustaining economic growth.^[33]

Government[edit]

Main articles: Government of Peru and Politics of Peru

Congress sits in the Palacio Legislativo in Lima.

Peru is a presidential representative democratic republic with a multi-party system. Under the current constitution, the President is the head of state andgovernment; he or she is elected for five years and can only seek re-election after standing down for at least one full term and during his term.^[34] The President designates the Prime Minister and, with his advice, the rest of the Council of Ministers.^[35] Congress is unicameral with 130 members elected for a five-year term.^[36] Bills may be proposed by either the executive or the legislative branch; they become law after being passed by Congress and promulgated by the President.^[37] The judiciary is nominally independent,^[38] though political intervention into judicial matters has been common throughout history and arguably continues today.^[39]

The Peruvian government is directly elected, and voting is compulsory for all citizens aged 18 to 70.^[40] General elections held in 2011 ended in a second-round victory for presidential candidate Ollanta Humala of the Gana Perú alliance (51.4% of valid votes) over Keiko Fujimori of Fuerza 2011 (48.5%).^[41]Congress is currently composed of Gana Perú (47 seats), Fuerza 2011 (37 seats), Alianza Parlamentaria (20 seats), Alianza por el Gran Cambio (12 seats),Solidaridad Nacional (8 seats) and Concertación Parlamentaria (6 seats).^[42]

Peruvian foreign relations have been dominated by border conflicts with neighboring countries, most of which were settled during the 20th century.^[43]Currently, Peru disputes its maritime limits with Chile in the Pacific Ocean.^[44] Peru is an active member of several regional blocs and one of the founders of the Andean Community of Nations. It is also a participant in international organizations such as the Organization of American States and the United Nations. The Peruvian military is composed of an army, a navy and an air force; its primary mission is to safeguard the independence, sovereignty and territorial integrity of the country.^[45] The armed forces are subordinate to the Ministry of Defense and to the President as Commander-in-Chief. Conscription was abolished in 1999 and replaced by voluntary military service.^[46]

Regions[edit]

Main article: Administrative divisions of Peru

Ama
zonasAncashApurímacArequipaAyacuchoCaja
marcaCuscoHuánucoHuanca
velicaIcaPuno

Tacna

Tumbes

San
Martín

Ucayali

info

Clickable map of the regions of Peru.

Peru is divided into 25 regions and the province of Lima. Each region has an elected government composed of a president and council that serve four-year terms.^[47] These governments plan regional development, execute public investment projects, promote economic activities, and manage public property.^[48] The province of Lima is administered by a city council.^[49] The goal of devolving power to regional and municipal governments was among others to improve popular participation. NGOs played an important role in thedecentralisation process and still influence local politics.^[50]

Regions

·         Amazonas ·         Ancash ·         Apurímac ·         Arequipa ·         Ayacucho ·         Cajamarca ·         Callao ·         Cuzco ·         Huancavelica ·         Huánuco ·         Ica ·         Junín ·         La Libertad

·         Lambayeque ·         Lima ·         Loreto ·         Madre de Dios ·         Moquegua ·         Pasco ·         Piura ·         Puno ·         San Martín ·         Tacna ·         Tumbes ·         Ucayali

Province

·         Lima

Geography[edit]

Main article: Geography of Peru

Manú National Park, a biosphere reserve in the Peruvian Amazon, andAlpamayo, a mountain peak in the Huascarán National Park.

Peru covers 1,285,216 km² (496,225 sq mi) of western South America. It borders Ecuador and Colombia to the north,Brazil to the east, Bolivia to the southeast, Chile to the south, and the Pacific Ocean to the west. The Andes Mountains run parallel to the Pacific Ocean; they define the three regions traditionally used to describe the country geographically. The costa (coast), to the west, is a narrow plain, largely arid except for valleys created by seasonal rivers. The sierra(highlands) is the region of the Andes; it includes the Altiplano plateau as well as the highest peak of the country, the 6,768 m (22,205 ft) Huascarán.^[51] The third region is the selva (jungle), a wide expanse of flat terrain covered by theAmazon rainforest that extends east. Almost 60 percent of the country's area is located within this region.^[52]

Most Peruvian rivers originate in the peaks of the Andes and drain into one of three basins. Those that drain toward the Pacific Ocean are steep and short, flowing only intermittently. Tributaries of the Amazon River are longer, have a much larger flow, and are less steep once they exit the sierra. Rivers that drain into Lake Titicaca are generally short and have a large flow.^[53] Peru's longest rivers are the Ucayali, the Marañón, the Putumayo, the Yavarí, the Huallaga, theUrubamba, the Mantaro, and the Amazon.^[54]

Peru does not have an exclusively tropical climate; the influence of the Andes and the Humboldt Current cause great climatic diversity within the country. The costa has moderate temperatures, low precipitations, and high humidity, except for its warmer, wetter northern reaches.^[55] In the sierra, rain is frequent during summer, and temperature and humidity diminish with altitude up to the frozen peaks of the Andes.^[56] The selva is characterized by heavy rainfall and high temperatures, except for its southernmost part, which has cold winters and seasonal rainfall.^[57] Because of its varied geography and climate, Peru has a high biodiversity with 21,462 species of plants and animals reported as of 2003; 5,855 of them endemic.^[58]

Buildings in Lima's financial district of San Isidro, and the Callao seaport, Peru's main export outlet.

The economy of Peru is classified as upper middle income by the World Bank^[59] and is the 39th largest in the world.^[60] Peru is, as of 2011, one of the world's fastest-growing economies owing to the economic boom experienced during the 2000s.^[61] It has a high Human Development Index of .752 based on 2011 data; Historically, the country's economic performance has been tied to exports, which provide hard currency to finance imports and external debt payments.^[62] Although they have provided substantial revenue, self-sustained growth and a more egalitarian distribution of income have proven elusive.^[63] According to 2010 data, 31.3% of its total population is poor, including 9.8% that lives in poverty.^[64]

Peruvian economic policy has varied widely over the past decades. The 1968–1975 government of Juan Velasco Alvaradointroduced radical reforms, which included agrarian reform, the expropriation of foreign companies, the introduction of aneconomic planning system, and the creation of a large state-owned sector. These measures failed to achieve their objectives of income redistribution and the end of economic dependence on developed nations.^[65]

Despite these results, most reforms were not reversed until the 1990s, when the liberalizing government of Alberto Fujimoriended price controls, protectionism, restrictions on foreign direct investment, and most state ownership of companies.^[66]Reforms have permitted sustained economic growth since 1993, except for a slump after the 1997 Asian financial crisis.^[67]

Services account for 53% of Peruvian gross domestic product, followed by manufacturing (22.3%), extractive industries (15%), and taxes (9.7%).^[68] Recent economic growth has been fueled by macroeconomic stability, improved terms of trade, and rising investment and consumption.^[69] Trade is expected to increase further after the implementation of a free trade agreement with the United States signed on April 12, 2006.^[70] Peru's main exports are copper, gold, zinc, textiles, and fish meal; its major trade partners are the United States, China, Brazil, and Chile.^[71]

Demographics[edit]

Main articles: Demographics of Peru and Peruvian people

Racial and Ethnic Composition in Peru (2006 survey)[72] Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática (INEI)
Race/Ethnicity
Mestizo				59.5%
Quechua				22.7%
Aymara				2.7%
Amazonian				1.8%
White				4.9%
Black/Mulatto				1.6%
Others				6.7%
Religion in Peru (2007 Census)
Religion			Percent
Roman Catholic			81.3%
Evangelical			12.5%
other denominations			3.3%
non-religious			2.9%

Left to right:
Andean man in traditional attire from Pisac.
Asian-Peruvian former president Alberto Fujimori.
Renowned Afro-Peruvian singer Susana Baca.

Peru is a multiethnic country formed by different groups over five centuries.Amerindians inhabited Peruvian territory for several millennia before the Spanish Conquest of the 16th century; according to historian Noble David Cook their population decreased from nearly 5–9 million in the 1520s to around 600,000 in 1620 mainly because of infectious diseases.^[73] Spaniards and Africans arrived in large numbers under colonial rule, mixing widely with each other and indigenous peoples. Gradual European immigration from Italy, Spain, France, Britain, andGermany followed independence.^[74] Peru freed its black slaves in 1854.^[75]Chinese arrived in the 1850s, replacing slave workers, and have since greatly influenced Peruvian society.^[76]

The last Peruvian census that attempted to classify persons according to ethnicity was in 1940, when 53% of the population was found to be white or mestizo (mixed white and Amerindian ancestry) and 46% was found to be Amerindian.^[77] According to the CIA World Factbook, the majority of the people in Peru are Amerindians, mostly Quechua and Aymara, followed by mestizos.^[60]Yet, in a 2006 survey from the Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática (INEI), the Peruvian population self-identified primarily as mestizo (59.5%), followed by Quechua (22.7%), Aymara (2.7%), Amazonian (1.8%), Black/Mulatto (1.6%),white (4.9%), and "Others" (6.7%).^[72]

With about 29.5 million inhabitants, Peru is the fifth most populous country in South America.^[78] Its demographic growth rate declined from 2.6% to 1.6% between 1950 and 2000; population is expected to reach approximately 42 million in 2050.^[79] As of 2007, 75.9% lived in urban areas and 24.1% in rural areas.^[80] Major cities include Lima (home to over 8 million people), Arequipa, Trujillo, Chiclayo, Piura, Iquitos, Cusco, Chimbote, and Huancayo; all reported more than 250,000 inhabitants in the 2007 census.^[81] There are 15 uncontacted Amerindian tribes in Peru.^[82]

Spanish, the first language of 83.9% of Peruvians aged five and older in 2007, is the primary language of the country. It coexists with several indigenous languages, the most common of which is Quechua, spoken by 13.2% of the population. Other native and foreign languages were spoken at that time by 2.7% and 0.1% of Peruvians, respectively.^[83]

In the 2007 census, 81.3% of the population over 12 years old described themselves as Catholic, 12.5% as Evangelical, 3.3% as of other denominations, and 2.9% as non-religious.^[84] Literacy was estimated at 92.9% in 2007; this rate is lower in rural areas (80.3%) than in urban areas (96.3%).^[85] Primary and secondary education are compulsory and free in public schools.^[86]

Culture[edit]

Main article: Culture of Peru

Mario Vargas Llosa.

Anonymous Cuzco Schoolpainting, 18th century

Peruvian culture is primarily rooted in Amerindian and Spanish traditions,^[87] though it has also been influenced by various Asian, African, and other European ethnic groups. Peruvian artistic traditions date back to the elaborate pottery, textiles, jewelry, and sculpture of Pre-Inca cultures. The Incas maintained these crafts and made architecturalachievements including the construction of Machu Picchu. Baroque dominated colonial art, though modified by native traditions.^[88]

During this period, most art focused on religious subjects; the numerous churches of the era and the paintings of theCuzco School are representative.^[89] Arts stagnated after independence until the emergence of Indigenismo in the early 20th century.^[90] Since the 1950s, Peruvian art has been eclectic and shaped by both foreign and local art currents.^[91]

Peruvian literature is rooted in the oral traditions of pre-Columbian civilizations. Spaniards introduced writing in the 16th century; colonial literary expression included chronicles and religious literature. After independence, Costumbrism andRomanticism became the most common literary genres, as exemplified in the works of Ricardo Palma.^[92] The early 20th century's Indigenismo movement was led by such writers as Ciro Alegría^[93] and José María Arguedas.^[94] César Vallejo wrote modernist and often politically engaged verse. Modern Peruvian literature is recognized thanks to authors such as Nobel laureate Mario Vargas Llosa, a leading member of the Latin American Boom.^[95]

Ceviche is a popular lime marinated seafood dish which originated in Peru

Peruvian cuisine blends Amerindian and Spanish food with strong influences from Chinese, African, Arab, Italian, and Japanese cooking.^[96] Common dishes include anticuchos, ceviche, and pachamanca. Peru's varied climate allows the growth of diverse plants and animals good for cooking.^[97] Peru's diversity of ingredients and cooking techniques is receiving worldwide acclaim.^[98]

Peruvian music has Andean, Spanish, and African roots.^[99] In pre-Hispanic times, musical expressions varied widely in each region; the quena and the tinya were two common instruments.^[100] Spaniards introduced new instruments, such as the guitar and the harp, which led to the development of crossbred instruments like the charango.^[101] African contributions to Peruvian music include its rhythms and the cajón, a percussion instrument.^[102]Peruvian folk dances include marinera, tondero, zamacueca, diablada and huayno

Peru's Independence Day holidays to boost domestic tourism

Peru's Independence Day holidays to boost domestic tourism 

Lima, Jul. 10 (ANDINA). About 2.15 million tourists are expected to travel around Peru during the national holidays from July 27-30, according to the National Chamber of Commerce, Production, Tourism and Services (Perucamaras).

Photo: ANDINA/Percy Hurtado Santillán.

Following a 4-day break on account of St. Peter and St. Paul's Day in late June, Peruvians can look forward to another long holiday weekend this month.
Tuesday, July 30, has been declared a non-working day for the public sector because of the July 28-29 national holidays marking Peru's independence from Spain.
Perucamaras said that domestic tourism would grow 4.4 percent over the long holiday weekend compared with last year, with 1.2 million people expected to leave the capital Lima these days.
During this time, the regions that would report more visitors are Arequipa, La Libertad, Junin, Ancash, Ica, Piura and Cusco. Meanwhile, Lima and the neighboring port city of Callao would receive 1.03 million tourists coming from all parts of Peru.
The Peruvian government has long been implementing holiday economics to boost local tourism in all regions of the country.

Peruvian Pisco National Day celebrations reach Australia

Peruvian Pisco National Day celebrations reach Australia 

Lima, Jul. 09 (ANDINA). Peru’s annual Pisco National Day falls on 24 July this year and celebrates the popular Peruvian beverage, Pisco.

Photo: ANDINA/Archive.

To mark the occasion and this year’s celebrations Surry Hills’ Morena Restaurant & Pisco Bar in Sydney is offering a special Pisco Dinner.
The event will include two Pisco cocktails perfectly matched with a three course special menu by Chef Alejandro Saravia, on the 25 July, 2013, priced at $60 per head.
Morena Restaurant & Pisco Bar prides itself on being the first Pisco bar in Australia, infusing and macerating their own Pisco to create a variety of flavours, not least the amazing Pisco Sour infused with Coca leaves and the digestive Pisco Emoliente, delighting new and not so new to Pisco.
There are many theories about the origin of the name Pisco, but Peruvians believe it to be from the town of Pisco, located on the coast of Peru, the region where the Spaniards planted the first vineyards.
Peru holds two annual national holidays dedicated to the one cocktail. The much loved national drink brings locals and travelers together for Pisco Sour Day, held on every first Saturday of February, as well as on National Pisco Day, taking place on 27 July 2013.
If you’re lucky enough to be in Peru for Pisco Sour Day, the best way to honour the famous cocktail is by visiting the capital city of Lima, where the fountain in Plaza Mayor swaps water for Pisco, and some 2000Lt of Pisco spouts fresh into celebrating mouths all day long.
With Australia’s first Pisco Bar located at Morena, Sydneysiders can now appreciate the famous cocktail in all its authentic glory much closer to home.
So what exactly is Pisco?
Pisco is a brandy made from 100% white Muscat grapes, known locally as Quebranta varietal produced in Peru and Chile and developed by the Spanish setters in the 16th century.
Pisco Sour is a cocktail that, like Mojito and Caipirinha, has increased in popularity in the United States, Europe and now Australia and is made of Pisco, egg whites, lime and Peruvian bitters

Machu Picchu named world's best landmark destination

Machu Picchu named world's best landmark destination 

Lima, Jun. 25 (ANDINA). Peru's Machu Picchu, in south-eastern Cusco region, was named the top spot landmark destination in the world by the travel website Tripadvisor.

The famed Inca Citadel of Machu Picchu. Photo:ANDINA/Piero Vargas

TripAdvisor announced Tuesday the winners of its Travelers’ Choice Awards 2013 based on reviews and opinions from site users.

Thus, the stunning 15th century Inca citadel took the preferences of thousands of travelers worldwide and beat approximately 1,200 monuments, parks, museums and water parks, among others.

The incredible landmarks span the globe and include everything from 1,000-year-old temples to modern day cathedrals.

Rounding out the top five spots in the world, were Angkor Wat in Cambodia, Taj Mahal in India, Petra World Heritage Site in Jordan, and the Bayon Temple in Cambodia.

Peru marks National Cebiche Day with festivals 

Lima, Jun. 28 (ANDINA). A number of events are being held around the country to mark the National Cebiche Day, celebrated every year on June 28 since 2008.

Photo: ANDINA/Norman Córdova

The Peruvian Association of Marine and Seafood Restaurants (Armap) has organized the "Cebiche Peru" food festival, bringing together 48 restaurants.

"Cebiche Peru" will run through July 1 with the participation of Peruvian chefs coming from Chile, Spain and the United States. It takes place at Plaza Norte Shopping Center in Lima's Independencia district.

According to El Comercio, the port city of Callao is today hosting the "Cebiche Chalaco 2013," with 40 restaurants competing  to make the best version of this dish.

Elsewhere, the northern regions of Piura and La Libertad have also organized food festivals and contests, while the southern region of Tacna will host an exposition-fair of Peruvian Cebiche.

TRANSPORTATION IN PERU

INTRODUCTION: BUSES Long distance buses : Inter-city travel in Peru is almost exclusively done in long distance buses. Buses in most of the cities depart from bus terminals called terminal terrestre. The main bus companies that serve Lima with the major cities include Cruz del Sur and Ormeno. See bellow links for more bus companies http://www.expresocial.com/ http://www.civa.com.pe/turismociva/ http://www.cruzdelsur.com.pe/inicio.php http://www.floreshnos.net/ http://www.floreshnos.net/ http://www.oltursa.com.pe/ http://www.grupo-ormeno.com.pe/ http://www.sabuses.com/ http://www.tepsa.com.pe/ If you have long legs then stay away from the bus company Oltursa. Their seats do not have much leg room., even on bus cama buses, and the stewardesses are ditsy. The semi-cama seats recline 160 degrees but it is still difficult to sleep on them. Camas recline 170 degrees. Also, you can get vegetarian meals if you request them when purchasing your bus ticket. The company Flores sometimes has government policemen checking identification documents when you board the bus. Cusco buses: if you want to travel to PUNO- CUSCO you can try is options http://www.firstclass.com.pe / http://www.inkaexpress.com TRAINS In Peru, the company in charge of the railway system is the ‘Empresa Nacional de Ferrocarriles’ (ENAFER) or the National Railway Company. There are two routes in the country; the most touristy and widely used is the Southern one, linking Arequipa with Juliaca, Puno and Cusco, or Juliaca and Puno. The last route departs from Cusco to Machu Picchu and Quillabamba, though the stretch to this last destination is interrupted. The other railroad links Lima with Huancayo and Huancavelica, however, the first stretch is not in service. When traveling by train, you may choose from several categories depending on your necessities and budget. The best ones are Pullman or buffet; then, first class, business/tourism and the always-overcrowded second class. For the route from Cusco – Machu Picchu there is an auto coach, a kind of faster but costlier electric train. AIRLINES (best way to travel) : Airlines in Peru include LAN Peru, Star Peru, Peruvian Airlines, LC Busre, TACA Peru and Cielos Andinos. Charter and Cargo airlines include Aero Transporte S.A., Aero Condor, Cielos del Oriente and Cielos Airlines. Former Peruvian airlines include Aero Continente, AeroPerú and Faucett. Etihad Airways flights have never been cheaper, and by using OneTravels exclusive flights travel coupon, travelers save even more money. Book flights on Etihad Airways today. USEFUL LINKS Frequent flyer community: http://www.flyertalk.com Links to serch fligths in Peru : www.oneworld.com / www.traficoperu.com/espanol /

inca trail viodeversity

The Inca Trail Ollantaytambo to Wayllabamba
This is the easiest part of the trail. It starts at approximately 2800 m (9,000 ft) along the Urubamba River. The scenery is that of small farms and agriculture land. Cultivation is most prominent near the junction with Cusichaca River. Tall Eucalyptus globulus (Eucalipto) trees dominate the valley floor. These originally Australian trees are now the most important source of timber and firewood in the area. If the trees are in bloom with flowers like fluffy white brushes, they are intensively visited by hummingbirds.Scottish Broom: Spartium junceum (Retama) is another introduced and now rampant species. Nevertheless, the bright yellow flowers (Picture) brighten up the landscape.Tecoma sambucifolia (Huaranhuay) is another bright yellow flowering shrub that is quite common. Near houses the white flowering Sambucus peruviana (Sauco) is planted. Opuntia sp., Schinchus molle (Molle), and Prunus capuli (Capuli) are also common near homesteads.Once you move into the Cusichaca valley you can clearly see the vegetation zones along the slopes (picture). In the valley bottom, there is a scrubby forest with Agave americana (Maguey), , Furcraea andina (Maguey). Cestrum sp., Fuchsia boliviana, Passiflora tripartita, Erythrina edulis (Pisonay) and others. Distinctive is the very spiny "Tara" tree or Caesalpina spinosa.The zone above this low valley forest is low, open scrubland which, when seen from a distance appears as a hazy green layer. This zone is dominated by the low shrub Dodonaea viscosa (Chamana) of the Sapindaceae family. Above this Chamana zone starts grassland or real Puna. Chamana is very flamable but resitant to fire itself. The annual fires started by the farmers to maintain the Puna for pasture kill nearly everything else in the Chamana belt and thus maintain the virtually pure stands of this species.On steep cliffs a number of Bromeliads can be found Puya densiflora is a terrestrial species with narrow, spiny leaves. Tillandsia paleacea is small species with purple flowers growing on rocks. The large Bromeliad covering steep rock slopes is possibly Tillandsia fendleri (picture). The orchid Epidendrum secundum is also found here but not as common as later on near Machu Picchu.A common shrub or small tree near farmhouses higher up the valley is Nicotiana tomentosa (Camasto) which is a type of Tobacco. The plant is not very attractive but usually bears large bunches of pinkish flowers which are simply irresistible to humming birds. It is worth while to wait here and catch a glimpse of the Giant hummingbird. This species is indeed a giant among the hummingbirds and apart from its size it is characterized by its(compared to other hummers at least) slow wing beat.Other hummingbirds I saw here include the Sparkling violet ear (Colibri coruscans) and the Long tailed-sylph (Aglaiocercus kingii).A true gem along this trail is the spiny shrub Barnadesia macbridae/horrida (Llaulli). This plant is an Asteraceae (Compositae) but has very unusual flowers for an Asteraceae. The flowers are shaped as a small trumpet and combined with the bright pink color, it is obvious that the species has evolved to attract Hummingbirds as pollinatorsAnd indeed, Hummingbirds are strongly attracted to the Llaulli flower. Therefore, if you like bird watching, it is good to keep an eye open for this plant.This section of the trail ends in Wayllabamba at approximately 3000 meters (9,400 ft). After here the going will get a lot tougher
Wayllabamba to Phuyopatamarca
This part of the trek is the most strenuous. Soon after you leave Wayllabamba, you can see the next goal; Warmiwañusca at 4265 m (13,650 ft) looming way in the distance. The first section of the trail goes through a similar valley-bottom forest as we saw along the Cusichaca valley. Only it is somewhat higher here, possibly because of diminishing human disturbance. Officially this forest is classified as "Submontane, Subtropical, Very Humid Forest". Species that I noted here include Alnus acuminata/jorulensis, Fuchsia boliviana, Barnadesiamacbridae/horrida (Llaulli), Oreopanax ischnolobus (Maqui Maqui), Passiflora tripartita, Piper elongatum (Moco Moco) Rubus bogotensis, Lycopersicon parviflorum (Climbing with yellow flowers), Duranta armata, Stenomesson pearce (Amarylidaceae), Clusia sp. This forest is quite dense with an understory of ferns. Sometimes the trail comes out of the forest and reaches into the Puna. Such spots are good places to see butterflies. When you dive back into the forest, it has become a "Polylepis forest" This unique forest is dominated by Polylepis spp (Queuña). This forest with its gnarled trees covered with moss and a dense understory of herbs, is quite enchanting. Around every corner you expect a troll or at least a hobbit. No such thing occurs here though, but the forest is teeming with birds.Polylepis belong to the Rosaceae family and is easily recognized by it's pinately compound leaves with expanded petiole base (see drawing right). The thin, flaky, reddish bark and thick trunks with twisting branches are another good characteristic. The genus is strictly Andean and forming almost pure stands at altitudes that should support Puna.Unfortunately, Polylepis forest is one of the most threatened forest types in the world. Originally it covered large areas in the high Andes, but generations of farmers burning the Puna to provide grazing for Llamas and Alpacas have reduced the forest cover immensely. Mature Polylepis can survive fire, but seedlings and young trees can not. As a result, the Polylepis forest shrinks a little after every Puna fire. For more information see the links that I put in the left margin.Ultimately, you leave the forest behind and come into the real Puna. This is an open landscape dominated by grasses (Ichu). This last stretch to the first pass is steep and strenuous. You may see grazing Llamas and Alpacas here. If you are lucky you may see raptors soaring above you. The Condor is very rare and threatened by extinction, so don't have your hopes too high for this one, but the most common larger bird is the Mountain Caracara. This attractive bird often allows close up looks.On top of the Warmiwañusca at 4265 m (13,650 ft) you may want to indulge in a snow fight, if you have any energy left that is. Having come so high, it is kind of depressing to look down on the steep downward trail but there are interesting things to see here. Just below the pass, there is a curious collection of huge boulders, this is where Viscachas live. These rabit-like relatives of the Chinchilla (which is now extinct in the wild) often just sit there on a boulder, looking rather sleepy. They are usually so inactive that you may suspect that they are really just stuffed animals.At the bottom of this slope lies Pacaymayu (3500 m - 11,200 ft). This is the largest camp site along the trail and quite a depressing place because of its frequent overcrowding. The camp lies at the tip of a Polylepis forest that follows the valley towards the Urubamba River, way below. This forest shows clear signs of recent fire damage.From Pacamayu it is up again into the Puna towards the second pass which lies just above Runcurakay. Along the trail grow many Odentoglossum mystacinum orchids.Near the second pass (3963 m - 12,680 ft) there are some small alpine "black water" lakes. Typically there is hardly any vegetation in these lakes, but some of these lakes are now filling up with vegetation. Possibly a result of nutrient input due to vast amounts of hikers and their porters defecating nearby?These lakes are supposedly also good sites to see deer, but I didn't even find any tracks of deer, so they are probably very scarce.
Below the second pass, you plunge back into the Polylepis or Queuña forest. The forest is actually quite similar to a cloud forest. As in a real cloud forest the trees are often laden with Epiphytes such as Bromeliads and Orchids. Very soon you will reach to an more open spot which actually has a Sphagnum or Peat Bog. The vegetation here is low, more like an "elfin forest" Many orchids and other interesting low plants can be found here. Very characteristic is a small treefern (or at least a fern with a trunk) that I initially mistook to be a Cycad.From here on, the last stretch to Phuyopatamarca (3711 m - 11,875 ft) is not that strenuous.
Phuyopatamarca to Machu Picchu
The views from Phuyopatamarca (3711 m - 11,875 ft) are breath taking and you might wish to spend a longer time here. But Machu Picchu is beckoning! The trip is mostly down from now on. Very soon we enter forest again. Initially there is still Polylepis but soon the forest changes and we renew our acquaintance with species as Oreopanax ischnolobus, Alnus acuminata/jorulensis, Clusia sp., Fuchia sp., Piper elongatum etc. Unfortunately, the forest is strongly degraded by past fires.Finally the forest gets a more tropical character. Species found here include Melastomataceae, Anthuriums, Begonia's, Lichens, Mosses etc.An interesting plant is Begonia parviflora. The Begonias that we are familiar with are low herbs that perform very well as a potted plant on our windowsill. But this species is actually a small tree!In spite of the fire damage that is obvious to the trained eye, this forest is again quite enchanting. Also along this road are some of the more amazing Inca sites that the normal visitor to Machu Picchu never gets to see.Finally at the Sun Gate - Inti Puncu (2760 m - 8,800 ft), just after you have lamented "I thought we were supposed to go down", there lies Machu Picchu below you in the haze!This is the reward of a long hike and for many hikers a very emotional moment. From here on it is a long and (unshaded) rush to the site and many might forget to look at the plants along the trail. Particularly common are various orchids such as the Sobralia's and the Winya Wayna or Epidendrum secundum which comes in orange and pink varieties.Once you are in Machu Picchu (2430 m - 7,870 ft) and feeling reckless, you might want to climb the famous Huana Picchu (or Wayna Picchu, the spelling varies)(2640 m - 8,450 ft). After all, it is there! and you are now fully trained!The climb of Huana Picchu however, is something else. It is not that far, but steeper than any other part of the trail. Also, it is rather dangerous. The climb is steep and crowded with people trying to pass each other on narrow stairways. The soil through which the trail is carved is clinging rather precariously on the steep rock and sooner or later parts of it may simply slide down. Hope you are not there when this happens!Should you decide to go, and the weather is nice, you will be rewarded with stunning views and interesting plant life. This is where I finally found the Masdevallia veitschiana orchid Near the entrance gate of the park Erythrina edulis (Pisonay) is common and very colorful. From the entrance gate to Machu Picchu it is still a ways down to Aguas Calientes (2000 m - 6,400 ft). Going down you will notice that the vegetation gradually gets more tropical. This is especially the case at the bottom of the valley where typically tropical plants such as Heliconia become abundant. One noticeable difference with a tropical forest though... you will see no wild palms here (apart from some planted in Hotel gardens)!This concludes my ecological interpretation of the Inca Trail. Much more remains to be said and shown, but there is no space left and you have to discover it on your own. Enjoy!