The rise of the 'cholitas'

By Paula DearLa Paz, Bolivia

Continue reading the main story

In today's Magazine

• Rape survivors take on universities
• North Korea's storytelling autocrats
• Fury as California 'sends China water'
• Spain's anti-eviction crusader

Bolivia's "cholitas" are riding the crest of a resurgence that has seen them transform from being "maids of the middle classes" who were routinely stereotyped and discriminated against, to having real clout in the economic, political and fashion worlds.

With their high bowler hats, puffed skirts and coquettish demeanour, they may look like they have stepped out of an early 20th century television costume drama, but cholas - or as they are affectionately known, cholitas - are very much a driving force in modern Bolivia.

As recently as a decade ago, these indigenous Aymara and Quechua women - who can be easily identified by their distinctive, elegant outfits - would be refused entry to certain restaurants, taxis and even public buses.

They were not permitted to walk freely in the capital La Paz's central square, Plaza Murillo - home to the presidential palace - nor in wealthy suburbs like the city's Zona Sur. Predominantly rural peasants who had migrated to the cities, they were seen as a lower strata who stayed in the home, or worked as servants or hawkers.

"They used to say, 'chola, no no!" when we tried to go to those places," says Carmen Mamani de Espejo, who sells flowers every Saturday at La Paz's Rodriguez Market. "Now it's much better for cholitas. We have more confidence now, we can walk where we like."

Carmen's day-to-day dress is classic cholita. While fashions and seasons change for cholas, as for everyone, none can stray from the "uniform" of a heavy multi-layered skirt with petticoats, long shawl, precariously perched bowler hat, jewellery and little flat pumps.

Continue reading the main story

INTERACTIVE

Bowler hatHairJewelleryShawlSkirtPetticoats

• ×
  

• Bowler hat

  ×
  Arrived in the 1920s from Europe, intended for male railway workers but were the wrong colour.

• Hair

  ×
  Always long and plaited at the back. Traditionally the plaits are tied together at the ends with a tassled cord.

• Jewellery

  ×
  The most powerful cholitas employ security guards when on parade to protect expensive earrings and brooches.

• Shawl

  ×
  The ‘manta’ is a key part of the uniform, usually held fast with a brooch.

• Skirt

  ×
  Known as pollera in Spanish, it’s heavy and worn high to give a rounded backside.

• Petticoats

  ×
  These multi-layered underskirts (enaguas) are often visible and colourful.

Valerie Salinas, who wrote a research paper called Chola pacena: fashion icon, says the Spanish forced the indigenous people to adopt European clothing - similar to those worn by assistant bullfighters in their homeland - to "rein in their subversive airs".

"The chola was very smart, she carried the burden of this dress - something she did not like - and in the end it empowered her and she moulded it to her liking."

Cholitas have always had pride in their culture, but have now reclaimed their image with a confidence that has, for the most part, come from massive social change.

Continue reading the main story

“Start Quote

We have more confidence now, we can walk where we like”

Carmen Mamani de Espejo

A gradual rise of grassroots movements in Bolivia - mostly lead by rural peasant groups - which culminated in the 2005 election of the country's first indigenous president, Evo Morales, has been credited with the country's ongoing transformation.

Women and indigenous people have been a particular focus of new policies and laws designed to end the elitism of the past.

While poverty and inequality remain, Bolivia's economy is growing. With more money circulating and with many cholitas being "commerciantes" - sellers of goods - they have more cash to spend, and it shows.

In recent years cholitas have even shown their fortitude by doing battle in the wrestling ring. Every Sunday in El Alto, on the edge of La Paz, polleras and plaits fly as a hard core of women take on the men at their own game, to the delight of locals and tourists alike.

The change is not only economic, but in social attitudes. Cholitas can now be seen studying at university, working in government ministries, banks and lawyers' offices, and anchoring TV and radio programmes.

And in scenes that were unimaginable 10 or 20 years ago, there are cholita fashion shows and increasingly ostentatious displays of expensive designer chola fashion at the forefront of festivals such as La Paz's event of the year, Gran Poder.

"Just 10 years ago it was almost impossible to think of a chola being a lawyer or a journalist, or in front of a television camera, leading a national programme," says Maria Isabel Cordova, who last year set up a new "society" magazine for La Paz's Aymara community.

"Although there may still be some discrimination today, the chola is gaining a place in society."

That she decided to establish her magazine, Ayni Sociales, is remarkable in itself.

"The Aymara community has a very active social life and is an economically emerging market. But dedicating a magazine to showing the glamour of this society would have been unthinkable in the past. Everything has changed."

So much has transformed that in recent months the first specialist cholita modelling agency was established in La Paz. At its helm is the formidable Rosario Aguilar - lawyer, former city politician and a passionate promoter of cholita fashion and culture.

When she began pushing the idea of cholita fashion shows nine years ago, it was a struggle to convince people to participate because people felt "no one would want to see it," she says.

"We had to beg the designers to take part. They were intimidated, I don't know if it was fear of rejection. It was also difficult to encourage any cholitas to be models.

"Now we have a long list of people wanting to participate."

It is telling that many of the models and women seen parading at fiestas and big social events are not "real" cholitas.

"A real cholita speaks Aymara and has it in their family. And they have to know how to dress themselves. For example, the skirt has to be really high up to make your bum look big," says Carmen's 27-year-old daughter Clara Espejo Mamani.

She wants to take on her mother and grandmother's cholita identity in the future, but the clothes can be very expensive so she is saving up for her first outfit.

"It's good that some women are dressing like that even if it's not real," says Norma Barrancos Leyva, a cholita and presenter on the Aymara language station Radio San Gabriel.

"It shows that there is pride in the pollera (chola skirt), it's part of our culture and our country's identity."

Growing up in a village three hours from La Paz, she was told by her grandmother that cholas could not got to university, nor be professors or government ministers.

Now she dresses as a cholita every day in her job as a journalist, because there is no reason not to. In 2012 she spent a month working at BBC Mundo in London, with help from charitable funding.

Continue reading the main story

A badge of honour

Many say the word cholita comes from the Spanish word "cholo" (chola for females) - meaning mixed-race or, pejoratively, "halfbreed" or "civilised Indian". But in this case it's been appropriated as a badge of honour. The diminutive "ita", frequently used in Spanish, is affectionate and means small.

As anthropologist Mary Weismantel says in her book Cholas and Pishtacos: stories of race and sex in the Andes, experts have been unable to agree on an exact definition.

In essence "cholos" refers to people of indigenous heritage who in many cases have some Spanish blood - known as "mestizos" - or at least who have adopted elements of Spanish dress, language or culture. Those who moved from rural peasant areas to the city - as many modern day cholitas and their ancestors did - were mocked as cholos attempting to move up the social scale.

Cholos, cholas and cholitas are terms that have also been adopted as modern slang in parts of the USA, to refer to people of Latin American descent, usually Mexican, who are low-income, "tough" and wear clothes associated with the gangster culture.

"I feel so happy I had a chance to do international journalism, which I would not have had before. Cholitas occupy a place in the hierarchy now, they have value."

And it's official. Last October the council in La Paz passed a municipal law declaring that the Chola Paceña (cholita of La Paz) was a central part of the city's cultural heritage.

It added that the "collective ideology has now shifted from [cholitas] merely occupying the informal market and domestic service" to "filling political, media and business" roles.

"This woman, whose stamp is a mixture of Spanish dominion and proud original American, is on the rise," said city politicians.

Cholitas exist all over Bolivia, but the types of skirts and hats change depending on the region. In the cities, there is no male equivalent -cholitas will almost always be seen on the arm of a man in predominantly Western clothing.

In rural areas, some men can be seen wearing more traditional clothing, such as ponchos and woolly hats covering the ears (in the Andes) but even there this is not universal. Special fiestas are the exception, but in everyday life cholita-ism is very much a female phenomenon.

Cholitas still occupy both ends of the social and economic scale, but the balance has shifted.

"Of course some are still poor," says top cholita fashion designer Limbert Cussi. "I work with the cholas who have money. They no longer sell on the street, they import goods from China, Chile, Panama and make a lot of profit.

"High-end cholita fashion can be very expensive. For those richer people, the more expensive the better - a set of gold jewellery for a big event can cost $18,000 (£11,000) alone. It's a competition."

Limbert designs and makes vicuña wool hats for the exclusive end of the market, as well as shawls for special events that can fetch $3,000 (£1,800) each.

He also set up and runs the Cholita Pacena website, which covers fashion and news, and is in the second year of production of a cholita calendar.

"We wanted to take on that image that cholitas were poor country women with babies on their backs. There's a phenomenon now - women want to wear the pollera.

"Before, people did not want the chola life for their daughters and their daughters would not want it for themselves. Now it's the reverse."

Photos by Paula Dear unless otherwise stated

Artículos cortos sobre el Perú antiguo Hallazgos, teorías y pensamientos sobre la historia antigua del Perú

Ayer me zambullí en el Archivo General de Catalunya para buscar documentos sobre el Perú y encontré un ejemplar raro del “Estado Político del Reyno del Perú”. Es un documento de 100 páginas escrito a dos columnas con letra imprenta perfectamente conservado y atribuido a Victorino Montero en 1742.

Debo confesar que fue emocionante, y consultando la red descubrí que existe una copia en la Biblioteca Nacional en Lima pero que contiene 48 páginas y tiene un título distinto, así que ignoro si el contenido de ambos sea idéntico. El libro tuvo una repercusión importante en su tiempo, ya que contiene una crítica ácida sobre la corrupción en el virreinato del Perú, y está dirigido al Rey de España.

Otro ejemplar del libro circula a la venta alegremente por Internet

En la Lima de 1740 todo es corrupción:“la distancia del monarca es el peligro del dominio”

Es notable el conocimiento del autor en materia de pagos, impuestos y saqueos cometidos por autoridades de la época. El virrey (nunca citado con nombres) es pintado como el director de orquesta de un Estado mafioso confabulado con sus ministros, el clero, los oidores y la burguesía limeña. Por aquel entonces se empiezan a suceder levantamientos por todo el Perú para  derrocar el sistema con poco éxito, pero el autor quiere advertir al Rey que si las cosas siguen por ese camino sus dominios de las Indias peligran.

Como ejemplo, menciona que el virrey tiene asignados 100 soldados como guardias a los que tiene asignados un sueldo de 50 pesos al mes, pero que realmente ocupa a 50, a 20 les paga la mitad, y a otros comerciantes ricos los tiene en nómina como guardias para ser inmunes ante la ley. Suena asombrosamente actual.

“El ser reino rico no prueba que su abundancia la traiga bien repartida su gobierno” (Estado Político del Reyno del Perú)

Una inspiración para la gente ilustrada de la época

El libro se encontraba en la colección de Joan Escofet i Palau (1720), un ingeniero catalán que llegó a convertirse en general. Realizó varios viajes a América para la construcción de obras de ingeniería y edificios. La colección que consulté contiene documentos maravillosos como su cuaderno escolar escrito en latín, un cuaderno con ejercicios de algebra y muchos planos e ilsutraciones de sus obras arquitectónicas. Además contiene libros de temas diversos como la agricultura, la astronomía y un manuscrito con la descripción de un terremoto ocurrido en Cádiz y comparado con el famoso terremoto del Callao del que ya me ocuparé en otro post.

El ejemplar consultado de “Estado Político del Reyno del Perú” estuvo oculto al mundo hasta diciembre de 2012, cuando la familia Bach donó su colección al Archivo de Catalunya. Y se subtitula: “Con algunos arbitrios para su mayor aumento y mejor gobierno, que dirige a SM católica, que Dios guarde, un leal y celoso vasallo”. Algo distinto del ejemplar conocido subtitulado “Gobierno sin ley, ministros relajados, tesoros con povreza, fertilidad sin cultivo, saviduria desestimada, milicia sin honor, ciudades sin amor patricio, la justicia sin templo, hurtos por comercios, integridad tenida por locura, Rey mayor de ricos dominios, pobre de tesoros”.

Initial DNA analysis of Paracas elongated skull released – with incredible results

Initial DNA analysis of Paracas elongated skull released – with incredible results

Paracas is a desert peninsula located within the Pisco Province in the Ica Region, on the south coast of Peru.  It is here were Peruvian archaeologist, Julio Tello, made an amazing discovery in 1928 – a massive and elaborate graveyard containing tombs filled with the remains of individuals with the largest elongated skulls found anywhere in the world. These have come to be known as the ‘Paracas skulls’. In total, Tello found more than 300 of these elongated skulls, which are believed to date back around 3,000 years. A DNA analysis has now been conducted on one of the skulls and expert Brien Foerster has released preliminary information regarding these enigmatic skulls.

It is well-known that most cases of skull elongation are the result of cranial deformation, head flattening, or head binding, in which the skull is intentionally deformed by applying force over a long period of time. It is usually achieved by binding the head between two pieces of wood, or binding in cloth. However, while cranial deformation changes the shape of the skull, it does not alter its volume, weight, or other features that are characteristic of a regular human skull.

The Paracas skulls, however, are different.  The cranial volume is up to 25 percent larger and 60 percent heavier than conventional human skulls, meaning they could not have been intentionally deformed through head binding/flattening. They also contain only one parietal plate, rather than two. The fact that the skulls’ features are not the result of cranial deformation means that the cause of the elongation is a mystery, and has been for decades. 

An artist’s impression based on a Paracas skull. Photo credit: Marcia Moore / Ciamar Studio

Mr. Juan Navarro, owner and director of the local museum, called the Paracas History Museum, which houses a collection of 35 of the Paracas skulls, allowed the taking of samples from 5 of the skulls. The samples consisted of hair, including roots, a tooth, skull bone and skin, and this process was carefully documented via photos and video. The samples were sent to the late Lloyd Pye, founder of the Starchild Project, who delivered the samples to a geneticist in Texas for DNA testing.  

The results are now back, and Brien Foerster, author of more than ten books and an authority on the ancient elongated headed people of South America, has just revealed the preliminary results of the analysis. He reports on the geneticist's findings:

It had mtDNA (mitochondrial DNA) with mutations unknown in any human, primate, or animal known so far. But a few fragments I was able to sequence from this sample indicate that if these mutations will hold we are dealing with a new human-like creature, very distant from Homo sapiens, Neanderthals and Denisovans.

The implications are of cause huge. “I am not sure it will even fit into the known evolutionary tree,” the geneticist wrote. He added that if the Paracas individuals were so biologically different, they would not have been able to interbreed with humans.

The result of this analysis is only phase one of many phases of analysis due to take place.  The results need to be replicated and more analysis undertaken before final conclusions can be drawn. We will update when more details emerge.

Featured Image: An elongated skull found in Paracas

World’s Best Hikes: 20 Dream Trails

The Ancascocha Trail, Peru

Photograph by Didrik Johnck

Hiker: Erik Weihenmayer, blind adventurer and mountaineer

In His Words

The Ancascocha Trail in the Peruvian Andes is a spectacular trail that remains off the beaten path even given its close proximity to the classic Inca Trail to Machu Picchu.

I hiked it with a group of 18 teenagers from the U.S.—nine of the students were blind or visually impaired and nine were sighted, with the sighted guiding the blind. Around the middle of the trek we camped for a full day and night at the remote mountain community of Chillipahua, where we partook in a game of soccer with the village kids (our blind participants used a soccer ball with a plastic bag over it in order to hear it roll). We were all out of breath, since the village is at 12,000 feet. We also painted a schoolhouse alongside community members, and the locals celebrated our stay with a traditional meal: sheep and vegetables cooked under hot rocks buried in the ground.

When we all got to the Gateway of the Sun, above the World Heritage site of Machu Picchu, I remember the sighted kids describing the incredible view looking into this ancient city of rock, with much more of the ruins still buried under jungle vegetation. —Erik Weihenmayer

Length: 19-mile hike from Parpishu to Camicancha (plus bus and train ride to Machu Picchu)

The Details: The Inca Trail has fallen off most best-of lists because it is just too crowded, but the ruins of Machu Picchu—which poet Pablo Neruda praised as “madre de piedra, espuma de los cóndores” (“mother of stone, spume of condors”)—and the surrounding passes and peaks of the Andes should remain on any bucket list.

Enter Weihenmayer’s choice: the Ancascocha Trek (often called the Super Inca Trail or even the Hidden Inca Trail), a far more strenuous, yet less traveled and more rewarding path. The trek takes roughly five or six days wandering through traditional villages like Chillipahua and its namesake Ancascocha at 12,795 feet. Along the way, it humps over big passes, including a high point of roughly 16,000 feet on Inca Chiriaska, and takes in views of towering 20,551-foot Salcantay.

Many local guide companies have added the “Hidden” Inca Trail to itineraries, so take advantage of their logistical planning but go before the masses catch on. One note, the trail doesn’t actually end at Machu Picchu; you need to hop a short bus and train ride to get there, but you won’t care much after the experience of solitude in the high Andes.

When to Go: Spring (April-May) and fall (September-October) are best, avoiding the winter storms and minimizing the hordes of tourists that arrive at Machu Picchu in summer.

About Weihenmayer: In 2001, Erik Weihenmayer summited Mount Everest—he is the first and only blind person to stand atop the tallest peak. But that climb was just one of many accomplishments claimed by the Colorado-based adventurer, who lost his sight due to a degenerative disease at age 13. Weihenmayer, who is accompanied by a partner on his adventures, has since climbed the remaining highest peaks on every continent, run marathons, and competed in adventure races and reality TV shows. He is currently training to kayak the Grand Canyon. Weihenmayer also helps other blind, deaf, and hard-of-hearing people achieve outdoor dreams through Leading the Way, an arm of the nonprofit No Barriers USA.

peru detailet information

Peru

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For other uses, see Peru (disambiguation).

Republic of Peru ·         República del Perú  (Spanish) ·         Piruw Ripuwlika  (Quechua) ·         Piruw Suyu  (Aymara)
Flag Coat of arms
Anthem: Himno Nacional del Perú  (Spanish) National Anthem of Peru MENU 0:00
National seal: Gran Sello del Estado  (Spanish) Great Seal of the State
Capital and largest city		Lima 12°2.6′S 77°1.7′W
Official languagesa		Spanish Co-official languages:Quechua, Aymara
Ethnic groups(2013[1])		·         45% Amerindian ·         37% Mestizo ·         15% White ·         2% others[1]
Demonym		Peruvian
Government		Unitary presidentialconstitutional republic
-	President	Ollanta Humala
-	Prime Minister	César Villanueva
-	Vice President	Marisol Espinoza
Legislature		Congress
Independence from Spain
-	Declared	July 28, 1821
-	Consolidated	December 9, 1824
-	Recognized	May 2, 1866
-	Current Constitution	December 31, 1993
Area
-	Total	1,285,216 km2 (20th) 496,225 sq mi
-	Water (%)	0.41
Population
-	2013 estimate	30,475,144 (40th)
-	2007 census	28,220,764
-	Density	23/km2 (191st) 57/sq mi
GDP (PPP)		2014 estimate
-	Total	$370.735 billion[2]
-	Per capita	$11,797[2]
GDP (nominal)		2014 estimate
-	Total	$220.564 billion[2]
-	Per capita	$7,019[2]
Gini (2010)		48.1[3] high · 35th
HDI (2013)		0.741[4] high · 77th
Currency		Nuevo sol (PEN)
Time zone		PET (UTC−5)
Date format		dd.mm.yyyy (CE)
Drives on the		right
Calling code		+51
ISO 3166 code		PE
Internet TLD		.pe
a.	Quechua, Aymara and other indigenous languages are co-official in the areas where they predominate.

Peru ⁱ/pəˈruː/ (Spanish: Perú; Quechua: Perú or Piruw;^[5] Aymara: Piruw), officially the Republic of Peru (Spanish: República del Perú,pronounced: [reˈpuβlika ðel peˈɾu] ( listen)), is a country in western South America. It is bordered in the north by Ecuador and Colombia, in the east by Brazil, in the southeast by Bolivia, in the south by Chile, and in the west by the Pacific Ocean.

Peruvian territory was home to ancient cultures spanning from the Norte Chico civilization, one of the oldest in the world, to the Inca Empire, the largest state in Pre-Columbian America. The Spanish Empire conquered the region in the 16th century and established a Viceroyalty with its capital in Lima, which included most of its South American colonies. After achieving independence in 1821, Peru has undergone periods of political unrest and fiscal crisis as well as periods of stability and economic upswing. Economic cycles have mostly been based on the extraction of raw materials like guano (1840s-1860s) and rubber (ca. 1900).

Peru is a representative democratic republic divided into 25 regions. Its geography varies from the arid plains of the Pacific coast to the peaks of the Andes Mountains and the tropical forests of the Amazon Basin. It is a developing country with a high Human Development Index score and a poverty level around 25.8 percent.^[6] Its main economic activities include mining, manufacturing, agriculture and fishing.

The Peruvian population, estimated at 30.4 million, is multiethnic, including Amerindians, Europeans, Africans and Asians. The main spoken language is Spanish, although a significant number of Peruvians speak Quechua or other native languages. This mixture of cultural traditions has resulted in a wide diversity of expressions in fields such as art, cuisine, literature, and music.

Contents

The word Peru has origins in various Southern French and North Western Spain languages (Occitan) and also found in the Corsican country, however to the Europeans the word Peru was the most suited to replace the original name Birú, the name of a local ruler who lived near the Bay of San Miguel, Panama, in the early 16th century.^[7] When his possessions were visited by Spanish explorers in 1522, they were the southernmost part of the New World yet known to Europeans.^[8] Thus, when Francisco Pizarro explored the regions farther south, they came to be designated Birú or Peru.^[9]

The Spanish Crown gave the name legal status with the 1529 Capitulación de Toledo, which designated the newly encountered Inca Empire as the province of Peru.^[10] Under Spanish rule, the country adopted the denomination Viceroyalty of Peru, which became the Republic of Peru after thePeruvian War of Independence.

History[edit]

Main article: History of Peru

The earliest evidences of human presence in Peruvian territory have been dated to approximately 9,000 years BCE.^[11] The oldest known complex society in Peru, the Norte Chico civilization, flourished along the coast of the Pacific Ocean between 3,000 and 1,800 BCE.^[12] These early developments were followed by archaeological cultures such as Cupisnique, Chavin, Paracas, Mochica, Nazca, Wari, and Chimú. In the 15th century, the Incas emerged as a powerful state which, in the span of a century, formed the largest empire in pre-Columbian America.^[13] Andean societies were based on agriculture, using techniques such as irrigation and terracing; camelid husbandry and fishing were also important. Organization relied on reciprocity and redistribution because these societies had no notion of market or money.^[14]

In December 1532, a party of conquistadors led by Francisco Pizarro defeated and captured Inca Emperor Atahualpa. Ten years later, the Spanish Crown established the Viceroyalty of Peru, which included most of its South American colonies.^[15] Viceroy Francisco de Toledo reorganized the country in the 1570s, with silver mining as its main economic activity and Amerindian forced labor as its primary workforce.^[16]

Peruvian bullion provided revenue for the Spanish Crown and fueled a complex trade network that extended as far as Europe and the Philippines.^[17]However, by the 18th century, declining silver production and economic diversification greatly diminished royal income.^[18] In response, the Crown enacted the Bourbon Reforms, a series of edicts that increased taxes and partitioned the Viceroyalty.^[19] The new laws provoked Túpac Amaru II's rebellion and other revolts, all of which were quashed.^[20]

Since its independence in 1821, Peru's bustling center of commerce and political power has remained at Lima.

In the early 19th century, while most of South America was swept by wars of independence, Peru remained a royalist stronghold. As the elite vacillated between emancipation and loyalty to the Spanish Monarchy, independence was achieved only after the occupation by military campaigns of José de San Martín and Simón Bolívar.^[21] During the early years of the Republic, endemic struggles for power between military leaders caused political instability.^[22]

Peruvian national identity was forged during this period, as Bolivarian projects for a Latin American Confederation floundered and a union with Bolivia proved ephemeral.^[23] Between the 1840s and 1860s, Peru enjoyed a period of stability under the presidency of Ramón Castilla through increased state revenues from guano exports.^[24] However, by the 1870s, these resources had been depleted, the country was heavily indebted, and political in-fighting was again on the rise.^[25]

Peru was defeated by Chile in the 1879–1883 War of the Pacific, ceding the provinces of Arica andTarapacá in the treaties of Ancón and Lima. Internal struggles after the war were followed by a period of stability under the Civilista Party, which lasted until the onset of the authoritarian regime of Augusto B. Leguía.^[26] The Great Depression caused the downfall of Leguía, renewed political turmoil, and the emergence of the American Popular Revolutionary Alliance (APRA).^[27] The rivalry between this organization and a coalition of the elite and the military defined Peruvian politics for the following three decades.^[28]

In 1968, the Armed Forces, led by General Juan Velasco Alvarado, staged a coup against president Fernando Belaunde. The new regime undertook radical reforms aimed at fostering development, but failed to gain widespread support.^[29] In 1975, General Francisco Morales Bermúdezforcefully replaced Velasco, paralyzed reforms, and oversaw the reestablishment of democracy.^[30] During the 1980s, Peru faced a considerable external debt, ever-growing inflation, a surge in drug trafficking, and massive political violence.^[31] Under the presidency of Alberto Fujimori (1990–2000), the country started to recover; however, accusations of authoritarianism, corruption, and human rights violations forced his resignation after the controversial 2000 elections.^[32] Since the end of the Fujimori regime, Peru has tried to fight corruption while sustaining economic growth.^[33]

Government[edit]

Main articles: Government of Peru and Politics of Peru

Congress sits in the Palacio Legislativo in Lima.

Peru is a presidential representative democratic republic with a multi-party system. Under the current constitution, the President is the head of state andgovernment; he or she is elected for five years and can only seek re-election after standing down for at least one full term and during his term.^[34] The President designates the Prime Minister and, with his advice, the rest of the Council of Ministers.^[35] Congress is unicameral with 130 members elected for a five-year term.^[36] Bills may be proposed by either the executive or the legislative branch; they become law after being passed by Congress and promulgated by the President.^[37] The judiciary is nominally independent,^[38] though political intervention into judicial matters has been common throughout history and arguably continues today.^[39]

The Peruvian government is directly elected, and voting is compulsory for all citizens aged 18 to 70.^[40] General elections held in 2011 ended in a second-round victory for presidential candidate Ollanta Humala of the Gana Perú alliance (51.4% of valid votes) over Keiko Fujimori of Fuerza 2011 (48.5%).^[41]Congress is currently composed of Gana Perú (47 seats), Fuerza 2011 (37 seats), Alianza Parlamentaria (20 seats), Alianza por el Gran Cambio (12 seats),Solidaridad Nacional (8 seats) and Concertación Parlamentaria (6 seats).^[42]

Peruvian foreign relations have been dominated by border conflicts with neighboring countries, most of which were settled during the 20th century.^[43]Currently, Peru disputes its maritime limits with Chile in the Pacific Ocean.^[44] Peru is an active member of several regional blocs and one of the founders of the Andean Community of Nations. It is also a participant in international organizations such as the Organization of American States and the United Nations. The Peruvian military is composed of an army, a navy and an air force; its primary mission is to safeguard the independence, sovereignty and territorial integrity of the country.^[45] The armed forces are subordinate to the Ministry of Defense and to the President as Commander-in-Chief. Conscription was abolished in 1999 and replaced by voluntary military service.^[46]

Regions[edit]

Main article: Administrative divisions of Peru

Ama
zonasAncashApurímacArequipaAyacuchoCaja
marcaCuscoHuánucoHuanca
velicaIcaPuno

Tacna

Tumbes

San
Martín

Ucayali

info

Clickable map of the regions of Peru.

Peru is divided into 25 regions and the province of Lima. Each region has an elected government composed of a president and council that serve four-year terms.^[47] These governments plan regional development, execute public investment projects, promote economic activities, and manage public property.^[48] The province of Lima is administered by a city council.^[49] The goal of devolving power to regional and municipal governments was among others to improve popular participation. NGOs played an important role in thedecentralisation process and still influence local politics.^[50]

Regions

·         Amazonas ·         Ancash ·         Apurímac ·         Arequipa ·         Ayacucho ·         Cajamarca ·         Callao ·         Cuzco ·         Huancavelica ·         Huánuco ·         Ica ·         Junín ·         La Libertad

·         Lambayeque ·         Lima ·         Loreto ·         Madre de Dios ·         Moquegua ·         Pasco ·         Piura ·         Puno ·         San Martín ·         Tacna ·         Tumbes ·         Ucayali

Province

·         Lima

Geography[edit]

Main article: Geography of Peru

Manú National Park, a biosphere reserve in the Peruvian Amazon, andAlpamayo, a mountain peak in the Huascarán National Park.

Peru covers 1,285,216 km² (496,225 sq mi) of western South America. It borders Ecuador and Colombia to the north,Brazil to the east, Bolivia to the southeast, Chile to the south, and the Pacific Ocean to the west. The Andes Mountains run parallel to the Pacific Ocean; they define the three regions traditionally used to describe the country geographically. The costa (coast), to the west, is a narrow plain, largely arid except for valleys created by seasonal rivers. The sierra(highlands) is the region of the Andes; it includes the Altiplano plateau as well as the highest peak of the country, the 6,768 m (22,205 ft) Huascarán.^[51] The third region is the selva (jungle), a wide expanse of flat terrain covered by theAmazon rainforest that extends east. Almost 60 percent of the country's area is located within this region.^[52]

Most Peruvian rivers originate in the peaks of the Andes and drain into one of three basins. Those that drain toward the Pacific Ocean are steep and short, flowing only intermittently. Tributaries of the Amazon River are longer, have a much larger flow, and are less steep once they exit the sierra. Rivers that drain into Lake Titicaca are generally short and have a large flow.^[53] Peru's longest rivers are the Ucayali, the Marañón, the Putumayo, the Yavarí, the Huallaga, theUrubamba, the Mantaro, and the Amazon.^[54]

Peru does not have an exclusively tropical climate; the influence of the Andes and the Humboldt Current cause great climatic diversity within the country. The costa has moderate temperatures, low precipitations, and high humidity, except for its warmer, wetter northern reaches.^[55] In the sierra, rain is frequent during summer, and temperature and humidity diminish with altitude up to the frozen peaks of the Andes.^[56] The selva is characterized by heavy rainfall and high temperatures, except for its southernmost part, which has cold winters and seasonal rainfall.^[57] Because of its varied geography and climate, Peru has a high biodiversity with 21,462 species of plants and animals reported as of 2003; 5,855 of them endemic.^[58]

Buildings in Lima's financial district of San Isidro, and the Callao seaport, Peru's main export outlet.

The economy of Peru is classified as upper middle income by the World Bank^[59] and is the 39th largest in the world.^[60] Peru is, as of 2011, one of the world's fastest-growing economies owing to the economic boom experienced during the 2000s.^[61] It has a high Human Development Index of .752 based on 2011 data; Historically, the country's economic performance has been tied to exports, which provide hard currency to finance imports and external debt payments.^[62] Although they have provided substantial revenue, self-sustained growth and a more egalitarian distribution of income have proven elusive.^[63] According to 2010 data, 31.3% of its total population is poor, including 9.8% that lives in poverty.^[64]

Peruvian economic policy has varied widely over the past decades. The 1968–1975 government of Juan Velasco Alvaradointroduced radical reforms, which included agrarian reform, the expropriation of foreign companies, the introduction of aneconomic planning system, and the creation of a large state-owned sector. These measures failed to achieve their objectives of income redistribution and the end of economic dependence on developed nations.^[65]

Despite these results, most reforms were not reversed until the 1990s, when the liberalizing government of Alberto Fujimoriended price controls, protectionism, restrictions on foreign direct investment, and most state ownership of companies.^[66]Reforms have permitted sustained economic growth since 1993, except for a slump after the 1997 Asian financial crisis.^[67]

Services account for 53% of Peruvian gross domestic product, followed by manufacturing (22.3%), extractive industries (15%), and taxes (9.7%).^[68] Recent economic growth has been fueled by macroeconomic stability, improved terms of trade, and rising investment and consumption.^[69] Trade is expected to increase further after the implementation of a free trade agreement with the United States signed on April 12, 2006.^[70] Peru's main exports are copper, gold, zinc, textiles, and fish meal; its major trade partners are the United States, China, Brazil, and Chile.^[71]

Demographics[edit]

Main articles: Demographics of Peru and Peruvian people

Racial and Ethnic Composition in Peru (2006 survey)[72] Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática (INEI)
Race/Ethnicity
Mestizo				59.5%
Quechua				22.7%
Aymara				2.7%
Amazonian				1.8%
White				4.9%
Black/Mulatto				1.6%
Others				6.7%
Religion in Peru (2007 Census)
Religion			Percent
Roman Catholic			81.3%
Evangelical			12.5%
other denominations			3.3%
non-religious			2.9%

Left to right:
Andean man in traditional attire from Pisac.
Asian-Peruvian former president Alberto Fujimori.
Renowned Afro-Peruvian singer Susana Baca.

Peru is a multiethnic country formed by different groups over five centuries.Amerindians inhabited Peruvian territory for several millennia before the Spanish Conquest of the 16th century; according to historian Noble David Cook their population decreased from nearly 5–9 million in the 1520s to around 600,000 in 1620 mainly because of infectious diseases.^[73] Spaniards and Africans arrived in large numbers under colonial rule, mixing widely with each other and indigenous peoples. Gradual European immigration from Italy, Spain, France, Britain, andGermany followed independence.^[74] Peru freed its black slaves in 1854.^[75]Chinese arrived in the 1850s, replacing slave workers, and have since greatly influenced Peruvian society.^[76]

The last Peruvian census that attempted to classify persons according to ethnicity was in 1940, when 53% of the population was found to be white or mestizo (mixed white and Amerindian ancestry) and 46% was found to be Amerindian.^[77] According to the CIA World Factbook, the majority of the people in Peru are Amerindians, mostly Quechua and Aymara, followed by mestizos.^[60]Yet, in a 2006 survey from the Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática (INEI), the Peruvian population self-identified primarily as mestizo (59.5%), followed by Quechua (22.7%), Aymara (2.7%), Amazonian (1.8%), Black/Mulatto (1.6%),white (4.9%), and "Others" (6.7%).^[72]

With about 29.5 million inhabitants, Peru is the fifth most populous country in South America.^[78] Its demographic growth rate declined from 2.6% to 1.6% between 1950 and 2000; population is expected to reach approximately 42 million in 2050.^[79] As of 2007, 75.9% lived in urban areas and 24.1% in rural areas.^[80] Major cities include Lima (home to over 8 million people), Arequipa, Trujillo, Chiclayo, Piura, Iquitos, Cusco, Chimbote, and Huancayo; all reported more than 250,000 inhabitants in the 2007 census.^[81] There are 15 uncontacted Amerindian tribes in Peru.^[82]

Spanish, the first language of 83.9% of Peruvians aged five and older in 2007, is the primary language of the country. It coexists with several indigenous languages, the most common of which is Quechua, spoken by 13.2% of the population. Other native and foreign languages were spoken at that time by 2.7% and 0.1% of Peruvians, respectively.^[83]

In the 2007 census, 81.3% of the population over 12 years old described themselves as Catholic, 12.5% as Evangelical, 3.3% as of other denominations, and 2.9% as non-religious.^[84] Literacy was estimated at 92.9% in 2007; this rate is lower in rural areas (80.3%) than in urban areas (96.3%).^[85] Primary and secondary education are compulsory and free in public schools.^[86]

Culture[edit]

Main article: Culture of Peru

Mario Vargas Llosa.

Anonymous Cuzco Schoolpainting, 18th century

Peruvian culture is primarily rooted in Amerindian and Spanish traditions,^[87] though it has also been influenced by various Asian, African, and other European ethnic groups. Peruvian artistic traditions date back to the elaborate pottery, textiles, jewelry, and sculpture of Pre-Inca cultures. The Incas maintained these crafts and made architecturalachievements including the construction of Machu Picchu. Baroque dominated colonial art, though modified by native traditions.^[88]

During this period, most art focused on religious subjects; the numerous churches of the era and the paintings of theCuzco School are representative.^[89] Arts stagnated after independence until the emergence of Indigenismo in the early 20th century.^[90] Since the 1950s, Peruvian art has been eclectic and shaped by both foreign and local art currents.^[91]

Peruvian literature is rooted in the oral traditions of pre-Columbian civilizations. Spaniards introduced writing in the 16th century; colonial literary expression included chronicles and religious literature. After independence, Costumbrism andRomanticism became the most common literary genres, as exemplified in the works of Ricardo Palma.^[92] The early 20th century's Indigenismo movement was led by such writers as Ciro Alegría^[93] and José María Arguedas.^[94] César Vallejo wrote modernist and often politically engaged verse. Modern Peruvian literature is recognized thanks to authors such as Nobel laureate Mario Vargas Llosa, a leading member of the Latin American Boom.^[95]

Ceviche is a popular lime marinated seafood dish which originated in Peru

Peruvian cuisine blends Amerindian and Spanish food with strong influences from Chinese, African, Arab, Italian, and Japanese cooking.^[96] Common dishes include anticuchos, ceviche, and pachamanca. Peru's varied climate allows the growth of diverse plants and animals good for cooking.^[97] Peru's diversity of ingredients and cooking techniques is receiving worldwide acclaim.^[98]

Peruvian music has Andean, Spanish, and African roots.^[99] In pre-Hispanic times, musical expressions varied widely in each region; the quena and the tinya were two common instruments.^[100] Spaniards introduced new instruments, such as the guitar and the harp, which led to the development of crossbred instruments like the charango.^[101] African contributions to Peruvian music include its rhythms and the cajón, a percussion instrument.^[102]Peruvian folk dances include marinera, tondero, zamacueca, diablada and huayno